During the Tianqi period, although the scale and output of Jingdezhen’s civilian kilns could not match the heights reached during the Wanli reign, they still maintained considerable vitality. By the mid-Chongzhen period, ceramic craftsmanship had further evolved, reaching a high level of sophistication that marked the final flourishing phase of Ming dynasty porcelain production in Jingdezhen. At this time, the types and quality of civilian kiln products were largely determined by different market demands, which were broadly divided into domestic and export markets. Within the domestic market, wares were categorized into daily-use items and ornamental pieces. The highest-quality products were those commissioned by the elite - high-ranking officials and literati - intended for decorative or scholarly use. These pieces featured fine materials, meticulous workmanship, sophisticated painting, and a rich variety of themes infused with literati taste.
The export market primarily targeted Europe and Japan. Compared to domestic wares, exported wucai wares often shared stylistic similarities or even overlap with those made for the home market, though they differed in the level of refinement and the forms of the vessels. However, during this period, wucai products were evidently not favored by either the European or Japanese markets. The lack of wucai production for the domestic market, combined with the suspension of official kiln operations, meant that for a long time, extant late-Ming wucai wares were extremely rare in mainland China. As a result, museum collections in China have remained relatively weak in this area, and scholarly literature on Tianqi and Chongzhen wucai has been scant.
The development of Jingdezhen ceramics from the late Ming into the early Qing has long been a neglected area in Chinese ceramic studies. However, in recent years, with the rapid growth of information exchange and the facilitation of art markets, more collectors and scholars have begun to focus on this field. A wave of enthusiasm has emerged around the study of late Ming and early Qing porcelain, helping to fill previous gaps in knowledge. Among the most intensively studied topics are transitional-period blue-and-white wares and early Qing wucai.
This raises the question: what became of Jingdezhen wucai after the Jiajing and Wanli periods? And how did early Qing wucai, especially from the Shunzhi and early Kangxi reigns, evolve from their Ming predecessors? The missing link in this developmental trajectory is the export porcelain made in Jingdezhen during the late Ming period specifically for the Japanese market - custom orders that have until recently received very little scholarly attention.
Ceramic trade between China and Japan persisted - whether through official channels or smuggling - virtually without interruption from the Tang dynasty to the Qing dynasty. During the mid- to early 16th century, exports of Jingdezhen porcelain to Japan increased rapidly. A large number of exquisite wucai wares were shipped to Japan, where they had a profound and lasting influence. These exported ceramics significantly impacted Japanese porcelain production for centuries to follow, particularly through styles the Japanese came to highly value, such as Ko-Akae and Kinrande.
Ko-Akae (literally “Old Red Decoration”) generally refers to the red-and-green polychrome wares produced by Jingdezhen civilian kilns from the mid-15th to early 17th century (Fig. 5), with a strong emphasis on pieces from the Jiajing and Wanli periods. Kinrande (“Gold Brocade Style”) refers to overglaze polychrome porcelain with gold decoration, made in Jingdezhen’s civilian kilns during the Jiajing period (Figs. 6-1, 6-2). This type enjoyed great popularity at the time, though the quality of production varied. The finest examples were high-end wares specifically made for the Japanese market, many of which are now treasured as important holdings in Japan’s major museums.
These wares are notable for their superb craftsmanship, rich variety of decorative techniques, and their pioneering use of combined wucai and gold overglaze, which resulted in a striking and luxurious aesthetic. Jiajing-period wucai wares with gold decoration typically featured red as the dominant tone, aligning with the contemporary taste for red within China.
The booming kiln industry of the Jiajing and Wanli periods produced a vast range of porcelain for export, and Japan was the principal destination for wucai during this era. Clearly, the robust trade between Jingdezhen and Japan in the Jiajing and Wanli periods laid an important foundation for the renewed export of wucai wares in the late Ming dynasty.
To be continued ...
This blog article series is based on a paper written by Mr. Li Yanxun of the Yanshan Art Museum in Jingdezhen for the 2018 special exhibition Eastern Brilliance: Special Exhibition of Japanese-Commissioned Porcelain from Late Ming China, organized by the Tang Ying Society. The paper was published in the exhibition catalogue released in 2021.